The Great Smog of London 1952

Walking through the strangely deserted London streets you attempt to not fall in the strange slippery film that has covered the sidewalks. You can barely see where you”re going in the dull haze and even though you hold a damp handkerchief over your mouth and nose the smell of rotten sulfur still penetrates. All you can think about is getting home, if you can find it. 

Two constables observe a Christmas tree that is clouded by the early stages of the smog. Courtesy of Leonard Bentley.

A History of Pollution 

During the act of combustion small particles are released into the atmosphere. In places like London, where fog is a common occurrence, water vapor clings to these particulates and lay low to the ground. In large enough proportions this can create the thick choking cloud known as smog. Smog being the combination of the words “smoke” and “fog”.

Pollution has plagued London since its earliest days, with smog being prevalent as early as the 13th century when coal burning became the primary source of heat. As the city expanded through the centuries pollution became much worse. By the 1600s citizens vehemently complained to King James I about foul smelling air, and he attempted legislation to restrict coal burning but it was ineffective. Rapid industrialization in the 1700s further worsened the problem, and during the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s it became a crisis. Air pollution increased dramatically as both furnaces in factories and domestic fireplaces spewed soot into the atmosphere, and the smog was not just choking, it was deadly. When coal is burned it releases sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide, carbon monoxide in high enough quantities can kill a person. Sulfur dioxide would combine with water from the fog to create sulfuric acid, so not only were people breathing toxic fumes they were breathing acid! “Pea-soupers”, as the thick smog came to be called, along with raw sewage in the streets and garbage piling up drastically decreased public health. By this time the life expectancy of the average Londoner was only 37 years. Even military leaders began to complain about the issue as they found that only 2 out of every 10 fighting age men from London was fit for service. There were several notable smog events during this time where the city would be covered for days at a time by a brownish-yellow suffocating mist. One of the most serious happened in 1873 where London saw its death rate rise by 40%. It was during this heavily polluted time that London gained its foggy reputation across the globe with writers like Charles Dickens and Arthur Conan Doyle publishing books containing vivid descriptions of the hazy city. 

This is what sulfur dioxide looks like, giving one the idea of what the smog would look like. Courtesy of The Denver Post

Access to clean water also became a huge issue at this time. London experienced the Great Stink where its River Thames became a cesspool of sewage, animal carcasses, and other rotting garbage. Residents would cover doorways with curtains soaked in lime  to try and keep the smell out. The stench became so bad that even parliament could not stand it and canceled their session. This problem was remedied relatively quickly as London set about creating one of the most expansive sewer systems of the age. 

Artist rendition of The Great Stink. Courtesy of Punch magazine

However smog remained an issue as the city continued to expand and the conurbation became denser. Fog related deaths even began to be recorded on gravestones, but officials would not do anything about the air pollution. Industry provided many needed jobs and coal was still the cheapest way to heat a home. 

An aerial picture of some factories in London around the turn of the century. Courtesy of Getty Images.

Great Smog of 1952 

The Great Smog of 1952 was the worst pea-souper that London had ever experienced. Overall, smog had become less prevalent in the 20th century as factories began moving outside of the city, but a perfect storm of weather and pollution combined to choke the great city. On December 5 an anticyclone set in over London. This was a high-pressure weather system that trapped cold air below warm air, creating a dense fog that was unable to disperse. This also meant that emissions released by factories and homes could not escape into the atmosphere. The past few weeks there had been a cold snap and Londoners had been constantly fueling their fireplaces, releasing more carbon than usual. As the heavy fog descended on the city it began to mix with the smoke from factory furnaces, domestic chimneys, and car exhaust to turn a sickly yellowish-brown. As the day wore on the smog became thicker, but with the usual stiff upper lip that the British are known for they went on with their day unbothered. 

A picture of the Thames before the smog became extremely thick. Courtesy of Getty Images.

The next day was much worse. A 40-mile-wide cloud of noxious sulfur particulates had covered the entire city. The acrid mist reeked of rotten eggs and was only growing worse as residents continued to pump smoke and soot into the air. Visibility was extremely poor also, in some parts of the city it was so bad that pedestrians could not see their own feet. With the exception of London's Underground, all transportation was severely hampered. Ambulances could not find their way around and often took three times longer than usual to reach their destination. Normal commuters tried to navigate by turning on their headlights and sticking their heads out the window to see, but it was of no use and many left their cars in the middle of the street. Boat traffic on the Thames was halted, planes were grounded and flights cancelled, and trains were unable to run for fear of running into each other. Conductors held flashlights and walked in front of the double decker buses in order to guide them down the street, but by 10 P.M. all bus traffic had stopped. Even radio broadcasts had to be cancelled because broadcasters became lost in the fog. 

A conductor attempting to guide a bus. Courtesy of the BBC.

Those who ventured out on foot did not fare much better. Crime on the street increased as looters, muggers, and burglars became emboldened by the fog that they could easily escape into. The smog had also left a slippery black ooze on the sidewalks making it difficult just to navigate common obstacles. Some people were even hospitalized for falling over simple ledges that they were unable to see. Many wheezed as they walked through the caustic air and by the time they returned home their nostrils and mouths were blackened by the polluted air, causing them to resemble coal miners. Parents were advised to keep their children home because authorities were worried they would become lost in the haze. Soccer games and other sporting events were cancelled, however Oxford and Cambridge did continue with their annual cross-country competition at Wimbledon Common. Track marshalls had to help runners find their way through the fog by continually shouting “This way, this way, Oxford and cambridge!”

A constable wearing a mask to protect him from the fog. Courtesy of Getty Images.

Even indoors it was impossible to do much of anything. Many indoor concerts and plays had to be cancelled because either audiences could not see the stage or performers were afraid of slipping in the black ooze that covered every bare surface. Even movie theaters could not operate as the yellow cloud covered their screens. 

Animals were also severely affected by the smog. Herds of cattle in Smithfield choked to death on the toxic fumes, farmers attempted to fashion gas masks for their cows by soaking grain sacks in whiskey but saw little success. Many birds died while trying to escape, becoming disoriented by the fog and running into buildings and people. The Telegraph reported that, “A mallard, presumably blinded by the fog, crashed into Mr John Maclean as he was walking home in Ifield Road, Fulham. Both were slightly injured. Mr Maclean handed the bird to the R.S.P.C.A.” Many other suffocated animals were later found across the city with the appearance of having just dropped dead. For five days the miserable fog hung over London until finally lifting on December 9, but its impact would linger for years to come. 

An image of the smog in Piccadilly Circus. Courtesy of Central Press

Health Effects 

This smog was much deadlier than those seen previously. Undertakers began running out of coffins and florists ran out of bouquets. However most did not realise the severity until the registrar general published a report stating that roughly 4,000 people died directly due to the smog. Another 150,000 were hospitalized, mostly young children and the elderly who were more susceptible to health problems. Those with respiratory issues, such as heavy smokers, also suffered greatly as they already had weakened lungs. Health issues did not stop here however as death rates remained high well into the summer of 1953. Bronchitis and pneumonia rates were much higher than normal and it is estimated that another 8,000 people died from health complications after the smog was gone, bringing the total to 12,000. Even those who were not yet born were affected by the acidic air. It was discovered that those still in their mother's womb during the tragic event had a 20% higher likelihood of developing asthma. They also found that they developed slower and were less academic than those who were not exposed. All in all the Great Smog had a profound impact on the cities public health and would urge lawmakers to pass tighter environmental restrictions. 

A lone motorcycle rider heavily obscured by the smog. Courtesy of TopFoto.

Cleanup

Great attention was paid to London’s air pollution after the Great Smog occurred. The British government was a bit slow to act at first because they wanted a formal investigation into the matter. Some believed that the deaths could be linked to an influenza outbreak however scientists and researchers proved it was the smog. Four years later in 1956 parliament finally passed the Clean Air Act. This act allowed local governments to designate smoke-free areas throughout London and restricted coal burning in urban areas. It also set up grants for homeowners to help them switch from coal to different sources of heat, such as natural gas, oil, or electric. Change was gradual and another crisis happened with the Great Smog of 1962 where 750 people died, but the Clean Air Act was a major win in the history of environmentalism and Londoners as a whole. 

Courtesy of Archive.org

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Personal Thoughts

It’s interesting when you sit back and think that this really wasn’t that long ago. London today still suffers from poor air quality but this was crazy. Just a brown, sulfur smelling cloud covering a city as large as London. Not just London but other large large cities like New York experienced severe smog. And it still happens today! Places like India and China suffer from smog that I believe is still getting worse in some regions. Hopefully in the coming years more will be done to fix the issue in these places that still suffer from it. History repeats itself, sometimes even when we remember it.  

Sources 

https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Smog-of-London

https://www.history.com/news/the-killer-fog-that-blanketed-london-60-years-ago

https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/12/13/scientists-say-theyve-solved-mystery-1952-london-killer-fog/95375738/

https://time.com/4554972/great-smog-london-crown-netflix/

https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/learn-about/weather/case-studies/great-smog

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/on-demand/0/the-crown-how-the-telegraph-covered-the-london-smog-of-1952/

https://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/discover/londons-past-air