Pytheas's Voyage
Waves lap against the long boat as the frigid air attempts to penetrate your sheepskin cloak. In the distance large chunks of ice float atop the ocean’s surface bobbing up and down with the tide. At the helm stands the strange traveler who hired you to bring him here, tall and stoic he gazes into the oncoming ice flow paying little attention to the rising swells. You approach him and place a hand on his shoulder, “We have to turn back soon” you say. He takes his eyes away from the ice and without saying a word nods in acknowledgement.
Pytheas
Pytheas of Massilia (modern day Marseille) was an ancient Greek scientist and explorer who lived sometime between 340-285 B.C.E. Not much is known about what he looked like, his beliefs, or his personality but we do know that he was incredibly intelligent and adventurous. An astounding astronomer and adept geographer he was praised by many scholars of the time including Aristotle. He was the first Greek to accurately pinpoint spots on the earth based off of stars and constellations, and became the first to accurately measure the distance of a given point from the equator. He even corrected other geographers beliefs in the Pole Star, a star that was believed to sit directly above the North Pole. Discovering that there was no true North Star he instead triangulated three stars and found that if one were to imagine a fourth in the center then that would be where the pole actually is. On top of all this he was also the first Greek to make a connection between the tides and the moon. The man was also quite handy, oftentimes being able to construct his own scientific instruments by just using a written description of them. One might think that all of these accolades would be enough for one man, but not Pytheas. Pytheas was fascinated by the ocean and wanted to learn about what lay past the Mediterranean beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Strait of Gibraltar). His penultimate goal being Ultima Thule.
Ancient astronomer. Courtesy of Mitchell Teachers.
Ultima Thule was a mythical landmass in the far northern regions that fascinated many ancient scholars and scientists. No Greek had ever travelled there but there was much speculation as to what it was like. They believed a people called the Hyperboreans lived there who were somewhat similar to demigods. They were supposedly a strong, happy and healthy people who could not be touched by disease or sickness, even escaping death. It was also speculated that they had advanced technology and some modern historians liken them to the mythical Atlanteans. What the Greeks did know was that Thule lay directly North of Britain and today it is believed that the great northern land was likely either the Shetlands, Iceland, or possibly even the Norwegian coast.
Since the Greeks only knew the general location of Thule and did not know where exactly it was, Pytheas was on his own when it came to actually finding it. Observing the patterns of the sun he concluded that when it was at its farthest northern point, the pole, then the days would be longest and possibly would not end at all. He decided that when he had reached the area where days were extremely long then that was when he knew he was close to Thule. Remarkably Pytheas was correct about this observation as there are times during the summer when the sun does not completely set within the Arctic Circle.
Ancianr astronomy. Public Domain.
Ancient Greek Massilia
Pytheas was born and raised in Massilia which started as a Phoenician trading post before becoming a Greek colony in 600 B.C.E. This colony was located on the southern coast of Gaul, modern day France, and was at the height of its power when Pytheas lived. The people here were highly adept at seafaring, this being represented in their most prominent god the Delphinian Apollo who, as legend tells, would take the shape of a dolphin to lead ships to safety. They traded with nearly all of the Hellenic world and even had trade agreements with peoples much farther North for commodities not found in the Mediterranean. It also became a popular port for ships from other city-states as the passage was only 300 feet wide, making it very safe and protected ships against inclement weather and enemy ambushes. Being so rich it comes as no surprise that they also maintained a large Army and Navy, but as with most powerful nations they were always looking for a way to grow.
Artist rendition of ancient Massilia. Courtesy of G. Bouchard.
In Ancient Greece there were three main commodities that came from the North; tin, amber, and gold. Tin was an important component in the making of bronze as it made up roughly 10 percent of the alloy and there was very little to be mined in the Mediterranean. Bronze had properties that made it resistant to corrosion and the Greeks used it heavily for their armor, weapons, ship equipment and statues. Gold was used in jewelry and minted into coins for legal tender. Amber was mostly wanted for jewelry but also had practical uses. Most commonly it was used in spinning wheels as amber has electrostatic properties that attracts fibrous materials when it is rubbed, making it much easier to spin different strands into a single thread. These spinning wheels were used heavily in the textile industry and helped in making everything from clothes to rope. These raw goods came down the chain from the Celtic peoples in the north and in exchange Greek wine and other refined goods flowed back up.
An ancient Greek oil flask showing women making textiles, to the left you can see a woman spinning fabric. Courtesy of Science News.
The Greeks were quite happy with this trade however it ended roughly a century before Pytheas was born due to a migration of Celts that disrupted the whole system. Greece desperately wanted these trade routes back but there was not much they could do without exploring the regions to the north. This was a challenge in and of itself as the Carthaginians had taken over much of the western Mediterranean, and in an effort to protect their own trade routes they blockaded the Pillars of Hercules which was the only outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. While this blockade was in place the only way the Greeks could obtain their precious resources was by either trading with the Carthaginians, which they mostly avoided, or by performing an arduous trip overland. Neither choice was particularly tantalizing and the Greeks mostly relied upon what goods came from the already established trade routes between local Celtic tribes, though these goods came in at a fraction of what they originally did.
Trade was certainly not the only reason they wanted to make a trip to the north, to Pytheas especially. For a long time Greece put a large emphasis on philosophy and mathematics, shunning scientific studies based on observation. However around the time Pytheas was born their thinking began to change and many scholars realized the need for observational facts and wanted to know more about the physical Earth itself. Many theories began to arise on how the world was shaped and what it was made up of. Some believed it to be flat, some concave, while others thought the land was floating on top of a vast ocean and others believed it was being spun in a vortex. Along with these theories came others that tried to explain what might happen if one went too far in any direction. We do not know Pytheas’s personal beliefs but it is likely that he was skeptical and wanted to find out for himself. The voyage, to Pytheas at least, was to be scientific as much if not more than economic.
A map showing ancient Massilia. Courtesy of Catawiki.
How He Travelled
As with many aspects of Pytheas’s voyage we do not know exactly how he travelled, but there are two competing theories. The one that most sources go with is that Pytheas used a Greek trireme or bireme manned by a Greek crew for the duration of his trip. These ships have long open galleys, rectangular sails, and banks of oars on either side to use when wind conditions were not favorable. Their hulls were slender and allowed them to glide through the water which lended well to the large bronze battering ram that was used to damage enemy ships. The only difference between the two was that the trireme had three banks of oars while the bireme only had two. Whichever ship it was, Geographer Clements R. Markham, who studied Pytheas’s voyage in depth, contends that it likely would have been larger and more stable than the Santa Maria that Columbus sailed on when discovering the New World. There are a couple issues with this theory however, the feeding and just regular wages of a full crew would have been quite expensive. Records left by Strabo say that Pytheas was not a rich man and lived relatively meekly. Some historians though have countered this argument by saying that it is possible Massilia furnished the ship and crew for him since they likely would have seen the voyage as a commercial venture to regain their lost trade routes. While there is no evidence of this happening it certainly is a possibility.
Full size reconstructed Greek trireme. Courtesy of Ekathimerini.
The second and perhaps more likely theory is that he used local ships, changing at each port. If Massilia did not finance his voyage then it certainly would have been the cheaper way to travel as it would have been easy for him to gain access to a merchant ship already headed in the direction he was going for little to nothing. Once he was in the unknown northern lands travel was possibly even cheaper as he could have used cheap refined goods such as colored glass beads, gold coins, or fine linen to barter for a ride. Adding to this theory, Pytheas may have completed the first leg of his journey to Iberia on foot. Instead of traveling roughly 1900 miles by sea to reach the unknown lands he would’ve only had to travel about 300 miles over land making the trip both shorter and cheaper. Some historians believe that he may have purchased Celtic currach style boats to use after this overland trip but there is no evidence to suggest this and it likely would have been easier for him to just hire one of the locals to transport him and his men.
An artists sketch of a Celtic Currach. Courtesy of Photobucket.
The Voyage
In order to reach the mythical Ultima Thule Pytheas would need to find a way out of the Mediterrannean. If he travelled on foot to begin with then it would have been easy as he would just have to follow the already established tin and amber trade routes up through the Iberian Peninsula. If he travelled by sea then that would have posed an issue as he would have to go through the Carthaginians blockade at the Pillars of Hercules. It is possible that Massilia’s powerful navy helped him pass through, however this could have sparked a war with Carthage which was something the Greeks wanted to avoid. The more likely answer is that the blockade had been relaxed during this time as neither side was actively at war with each other. If this is the case then Pytheas would have had little trouble passing through since his main focus was exploration and not trade. Once he passed the Pillars he would have gone on to the Sacred Promontory, modern day Cape St. Vincent in Portugal, and then headed north along the Portuguese coast up to Cape Ortega. It is here that scholars' accounts differ, some say that Pytheas cut across the Bay of Biscay while others think he continued to follow along the coastlines of modern day Spain and France. This difference of opinion comes from the fact that there are no surviving records from this leg of the journey. In fact there are no records again until he reached Armorica on the Gaulish (French) peninsula. It is believed that he spent a considerable amount of time in Armorica, some saying upwards of two months, studying and talking to the people of the area that the Greeks knew so little about. One may think that interpretation would have been difficult but the Celtic language was actually well known to the Greeks since many of the lower class spoke it exclusively. It is not far-fetched to believe that learned men such as Pytheas knew at least some basics of the language, and on top of this it was likely easy for him to find an interpreter that could speak the different local dialects. Once he left Armorica he went to the island of Ushant which was likely a jumping off point for the tin trade between Gaul and Britain. He probably talked to the merchants here in order to gain an idea of the trade routes, possibly even hiring one of them to take him across the channel.
Map showing Pytheas’s possible routes. Courtesy of Infobase Publishing.
After the stop at Ushant he made for Britain. Accounts differ as to whether he went to Kent first or followed the more well known trading route to Land’s End, Cornwall. It is most likely that he went to Lands End as this was one of the main sources of Tin in Britain and where much of the trading took place. Here Pytheas would observe the tin production with great interest as workers extracted the ore from the earth, washed out its impurities, then superheated it with added compounds to create the pure tin ingots that would go on to be traded all across the known world. He was likely the first Greek to ever see this process. While in Cornwall he kept meticulous records on mining, how the people lived, and the wicker animal skin boats that they used. It is probable that he also spent time on the island of Ictis where the tin was bartered for by foreign traders. Archeologists are not exactly sure which island this was but the two leading contenders are St. Michael’s Mount in Mount’s Bay or Mount Batten in Plymouth Sound. St. Michael meets the description perfectly but has no archaeological evidence, meanwhile Mount Batten has plenty of archaeological evidence but does not fit the account exactly. Of course the topography of the island has likely changed in the 2300 years since Pytheas was there.
Another map showing both the possible overland and sea routes Pytheas could have taken. Courtesy of Graham Robb.
Once leaving Land’s End he travelled up the west coast of Britain, making frequent stops so that he could go inland and study the people there. Strabo quoted Pytheas as saying that he “traversed the whole of Brettanikē accessible by foot.” This is likely an exaggeration but a curious man such as Pytheas would have travelled as far overland on foot as he could to study this new and strange land, leading some historians to believe that he may have spent upwards of two years along just the west coast of Britain. As he made his way north he stopped on the Isle of Man and observed that there was a large island to the west, Ireland. Historians are able to give a rough estimate of where Pytheas was during his journey as he recorded the position of the sun in relation to the summer solstice. For instance we know that he was on the Isle of Man because when the sun's position he measured is transcribed into latitudinal degrees then it passes right through the Isle. He travelled further up the coast from here, stopping on the island of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides before continuing on to the northernmost part of England, the Orkney Islands. Based on his recordings of the sun’s position we believe he was in the Shetlands, though some contend that he may have been in Norway when he made this observation as the latitude line also passes through the country. From here he set off for Ultima Thule.
Pytheas sailed for six days before reaching Thule. He described the land as striking and magnificent, like a ginormous rock thrust out of the ocean. He observed that Thule laid North of Britain, was within the arctic circle, and that the midnight sun stayed upon the horizon of the northern ocean for several nights. This description matches Iceland's Northern coast. Some historians have theorized that Pytheas was actually in Norway but this is likely not the case as parts of Norway are not within the arctic circle and because Norway sits a little east of England. It is unlikely that such an accomplished astronomer and geographer like Pytheas would drift off course without noticing it. Some even say that Pytheas’s accounts are mere hearsay from the locals but it is hard to believe that he would have went so far only to give up just before reaching it.
A pic of Iceland’s northern coast. Courtesy of MosheA.
Pytheas says that there was a “Congealed Sea” just a day's sail away from Thule. What he likely saw was pack ice and slush where the ocean had frozen over. The one day travel time is right for him being on the northern coast of Iceland as even in summer ice can be found within several nautical miles of Iceland, and would not have been found if he had been in Norway. Strabo quoted Pytheas description of the far north sea, “Where neither earth, water, nor air exist separately, but a sort of concretion of all these, resembling a sea-lung in which the earth, the sea, and all things were suspended, thus forming, as it were, a link to unite the whole together.” This description baffled scholars and historians for ages but there are a couple simple explanations. As for the part that says “Where neither earth, water, nor air exist separately” Pytheas was likely seeing ice flows mixed with heavy fog that is common in this part of the ocean, this scene would certainly look like all three elements had come together. As for the “sea-lung” what he may have been referring to was pancake ice. Pancake ice is a flat, circular piece of ice that floats right at the surface of the water. It looks similar to a jellyfish which explains why Pytheas called it what he did, sea-lung was a common name for jellyfish in ancient Greece. Another possible explanation is that the thick slush looked like a human lung moving up and down with the tides. Pytheas attempted to go as far north as he could but the thick ice and bitter cold prevented him from going further so he had to turn back.
Pancake ice. Courtesy of WeatherOps.
Though it is not certain it is likely that he sailed down the east coast of Britain and rounded the Kentish peninsula, he called it Kantion, and probably spent a bit of time there talking to merchants and trying to find the trade routes that the amber travelled on. From here it is believed that he sailed along Europe's northern coast. Pliny the Elder believes that he encountered a Germanic tribe known as the Gutones whom he traded with. He also found an island with ample reserves of amber, possibly Heligoland or Jutland. Some say it is likely that instead of seeing where the amber was harvested he merely went to the island of Abalus/Basilia where it was traded, and he might not have even gone there as he could have just collected stories about the island from local traders. There are conflicting and of course missing reports of what he did on the northern coast of Europe, but some believe he went much further and argue that he sailed into the Baltic Sea and down the Vistula River into modern day Poland before returning home.
Upon his return he completed his circumnavigation of England and described the country as being triangular in shape, though he says that it was not equal on all sides. As he sailed he kept track of how long the coast was and measured the perimeter of Britain to be roughly 40,000 stades which works out to 4,440 miles. This is remarkably close as Britain is actually 4,548 miles in perimeter.
A map of Britain drew up from Ptolemy’s copying of Pytheas’s measurement and observations. Courtesy of the Greek Reporter.
The length of the voyage differs between accounts ranging from 8 months to 3 years. It is not known how Pytheas was received when he returned home, whether it was a quiet affair with just friends and family or if it was a public spectacle with the whole of Massilia welcoming him. From the description of others Pytheas was a reserved man and likely downplayed his accomplishments, wishing to let his writings speak for him. Whatever the response was his voyage would have spurred others on to explore the Atlantic and help Greece have the knowledge to reestablish some of their lost trade routes.
Statue of Pytheas that stands today. Courtesy of Patrimoine Iroise
The Clash of Sources
When one reads about Pytheas and his voyage then they are going to encounter words such as “likely, possibly, probably,” and “unknown.” This is because the only records we have of the voyage comes from other ancient writers who quoted or paraphrased his work. Though much of these that survive are from those that paraphrased writers who paraphrased Pytheas, meaning that they are fifth, sixth, seventh, and even eighth hand accounts. Upon returning to Massilia Pytheas wrote On the Ocean (Peri tou Okeanou) but it has unfortunately been lost to time. It contained firsthand accounts of his voyage, and included oceanography, ecology, and ethnological records of the people he came into contact with. We are not certain when it was published but it was likely written before 320 B.C.E. because not long after this date the work was cited by Dicaearchus in one of his writings. Luckily the book went on to be widely read and cited by many scholars as it was the only real description they had of the British Isles. A copy of On the Ocean would have been found in just about every major library of the ancient world, including Alexandria. Timaeus, Eratosthenes, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny the Elder are just a few of the more well known scholars who used Pytheas’s text in their own works.
Portrait of Strabo. Public Domain.
Though he was highly respected in the ancient world some did not believe his accounts of the voyage. Strabo and Polybius are two that denied the voyage even took place, ironically their quotings of On the Ocean make up the bulk of what we know about his voyage. Polybius wrote an entire work dedicated towards denouncing Pytheas and Strabo called him “the worst possible liar,” which is ironic as Strabo is known to have often misrepresented data. The animosity these two had towards Pytheas likely stemmed from jealousy. Most scholars however accepted Pytheas’s work and many well known works such as Timaeus’s Natural History and Diodorus Siculus’s Bibliotheca Historica used Pytheas as a source. It is due to this paraphrasing and corroboration of observations that historians are able to say definitively that Pytheas’s voyage happened and went further than any Greek had before.
Sources
https://collections.dartmouth.edu/arctica-beta/html/EA15-57.html
https://www.ancient.eu/article/1078/on-the-ocean-the-famous-voyage-of-pytheas/
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3296920?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A6f7801e5f4566eacd2145aa65a06dbf7&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxUqg3ss-Wo
https://www.ub.uit.no/northernlights/eng/pytheas.htm
Book, The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek by Barry Cunliffe
